Chapter 1 TYPES OF WRITING

In this chapter we outline some of the main differences between certain important kinds of scientific and technical writing. These are
􀂃 scientific articles
􀂃 research papers
􀂃 proposals

1.1 Scientific Articles
Scientific and technical articles and essays are mainly published in journals, magazines and newspapers. They are normally intended to reach a wider audience than research papers.

Thinking about your audience

How scientific articles are written depends on who the readers are likely to be. A more scholarly, academic or discipline-specific journal will allow specialised vocabulary, while a piece in a more popular magazine, for example, will present and explain the data in an accessible manner for a wider audience. The writer must know what kind of people he or she is writing for.

The structure of a scientific article

Articles and essays need to be a seamless whole: paragraph flowing into paragraph, ideas presented smoothly in logical order. Structurally they can be broken down into these three parts:
􀂃 The introduction
􀂃 The main body
􀂃 The conclusion

Each of these is covered in a section in Chapter 2 on Composition.

Articles and essays need to be well thought out and ordered. How the writer introduces the piece, builds on the introduction through the body, and concludes will largely determine how the information is accepted. Step by step, the writer must present main ideas, supporting evidence, analyses and conclusions in a logical and organised manner. The writing must not wander, but keep to its task of presenting the writer’s information in the clearest possible way.
Style Manuals

Every discipline has its own style standard. These Style Manuals are published and readily available for each field, science and discipline. Writers are responsible for knowing and following the standard of their own particular discipline.
 

1.2 Research Papers

Research papers are generally written for scientists working in the same field and therefore have a more limited, and more specialised, readership than articles. Research papers can appear in specialist journals or be presented at conferences.

The structure of a research paper
A research paper has a more closely defined structure than an article or essay. There are normally 8 sections in a research paper or scientific report, and these tend to follow each other in a fixed sequence. Obviously these may vary, depending on the nature of the research done. Each element is further described and explained in Chapter 2 Composition.

􀂃 Title
It must precisely describe the report’s contents

􀂃 Abstract
A brief overview of the report

􀂃 Introduction
Includes the purpose of the research
States the hypothesis
Gives any necessary background information
Provides a review of pertinent literature

􀂃 Methods and materials
Provides a description of material, equipment and methods used in the research

􀂃 Results
States the results of the research. Visual materials are included here.

􀂃 Discussion
Evaluation and interpretation
Was the hypothesis supported? If so, how? If not, why not? Relevant results are cited in support.

􀂃 Conclusion
Conclusions to be drawn from the results
Conclusions about the hypothesis
Implications of the research and results
Additional research proposed

􀂃 References cited
A list of the references cited
Include references to any works cited in the review of literature in the introduction.
Use the documentation style required by your specific field. (See Sections 2.9 on Referencing and 4.8 on Quoting)

1.3 Proposals

Proposals may well be the least popular form of writing for researchers but they are necessary. The purpose of a proposal is to ask for funding in order to make research possible. As there is only a limited amount of money in the world for research, you need to make the case for your particular research as effectively as you can.

Purpose of a proposal

A proposal must demonstrate that your research project is worth the time, effort and money to accomplish it. It must make the need for money and time easily understandable and it must propose an appropriate recipient for the funding.
􀂃 A proposal persuades.
􀂃 A proposal requests.
􀂃 A proposal promises that the project will be completed.
􀂃 A proposal states the researcher’s commitment to doing the work.
􀂃 A proposal presents a detailed plan to accomplish the research.

Components of a proposal

Although there is variation according to the organisation you are applying to, a proposal will probably consist of these elements.

􀂃 A cover letter. This is one page long, separate from the main proposal. It introduces:
* the researchers -- you
* the reason for your research – the needs and the problems that the research is to meet.
* the cost of the research
* the length of the research
* the benefits of the research (including to the prospective donors)

􀂃 A title page. The title page is one sheet of paper. It contains:
* the project title
* the recipient of the proposal, that is, the organisation, and if possible the individual
* the date
* the person or persons submitting the proposal, including signatures
* a contact person (name and title, address, telephone number, and e-mail address)
* the project budget total
* the project time span

􀂃 A table of contents.
This is only necessary if the proposal is over 15 pages long. It should be on a single page.

􀂃 A summary
By its very nature this must be written last. It should only be between 150 and 300 words (2 paragraphs) long, and include points in the cover letter.

􀂃 An introduction. Use the introduction to establish the need for the research and the credibility of the researchers to do it. Include:
* Background on the need to be addressed by the research
* Background on the researchers and their organisation (including degrees, titles and achievements)

􀂃 A needs assessment. This section should answer these questions:
* What is the need motivating the research?
* How is the research expected to meet the need?
* Why should you be the one to do the research? What are your qualifications for it?

􀂃 Objectives. This section should answer these questions:
* What is the goal of the research?
* What are the expected results?
* What are the expected benefits and applications resulting from the research?
* How do the objectives meet the needs?

􀂃 Methods. This section should answer these questions:
* How will the research specifically be conducted? Justify the methods proposed.
* What is the time-frame for the research project? Justify the schedule proposed.

􀂃 Pre-evaluation. This section should answer these questions:
* How will the project be evaluated? Internally or externally?
* What data will be gathered? How will it be gathered?
* What is the expected extended length of the project, beyond the scope of the immediate proposed funding?
* How will the results be disseminated?

􀂃 Long-term financial plans. The answers in this section should be specific and detailed. This section should answer these questions:
* If the project extends beyond the length of the grant, how will it be funded?
* Will the project be able to be wholly or partially self-supporting?

􀂃 Budget. This section should answer these questions:
* What materials are needed for the project and what will they cost? This must be itemised, specific and detailed.

􀂃 Personnel. This section should answer these questions:
* Who will be involved in the research, and why? (Be specific)
* What specifically are the duties and responsibilities of the researchers involved?

􀂃 Appendices. Each appendix should be a separate section. Possible appendices include:
* Résumés of the researchers * References
* Board members of applying organisations, or body of researchers
* Charts of the organisation * Letters of support
* Applicable charts, graphs and tables * Applicable bibliographies